top of page

Research & Background

Here you'll find the studies, meta-analyses, and articles that helped inform our training workshop. There were also substantial contributions from stakeholders in educational and clinical psychology.

  1. Adamson, A. D., & Peacock, G. G. (2007, October 1). Crisis response in the public schools: A survey of school psychologists’ experiences and perceptions. Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pits.20263

  2. Alexander, B. (2021, July 21). Public School Trauma Intervention for school shootings: A national survey of school leaders. International journal of environmental research and public health. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8345605/

  3. Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Fisher, H. L., Polanczyk, G., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2011). Childhood Trauma and Children’s Emerging Psychotic Symptoms: A Genetically Sensitive Longitudinal Cohort Study. Psychiatry Online. https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040567

  4. Beland, L.-P., & Kim, D. (2016, March 1). The Effect of High School Shootings on Schools and Student Performance. Sage Research Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0162373715590683

  5. Berring, L. L., Holm, T., Hansen, J. P., Delcomyn, C. L., Søndergaard, R., & Hvidhjelm, J. (2024, April 27). Implementing trauma-informed care-settings, definitions, interventions, measures, and implementation across settings: A scoping review. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/12/9/908

  6. Black, P. J., Woodworth, M., Tremblay, M., & Carpenter, T. (2012). A review of trauma-informed treatment for adolescents. American Psychological Association.

  7. Brown, C. H. (2020). School Counselors’ Response to School Shootings: Framework of Recommendations. Journal of Educational Research and Practice.

  8. Browne, C., & Winkelman, C. (2007). The Effect of Childhood Trauma on Later Psychological Adjustment. Sage Research Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0886260507300207

  9. Chibbaro, J. S., & Jackson, C. M. (2006, March 31). Helping students cope in an age of terrorism: Strategies for school counselors. Professional School Counseling. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ743479

  10. Cimolai, V., Schmitz, J., & Sood, A. B. (2021, March 16). Effects of mass shootings on the mental health of children and adolescents - current psychiatry reports. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-021-01222-2

  11. Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A., Kliethermes, M., & Murray, L. A. (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213412001007?via%3Dihub

  12. Colter, J. (2025, October). School Shooting Crisis Response. personal.

  13. De Bellis, M. D., & Zisk, A. (2014, April). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3968319/

  14. Deb, P., & Gangaram, A. (2021, April 5). Effects of school shootings on risky behavior, health and human capital. National Bureau of Economic Research . https://www.nber.org/papers/w28634

  15. Dye, H. (2018). The impact and long-term effects of childhood trauma. Taylor & Francis Online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10911359.2018.1435328

  16. Fein, A. H. (2003). There and back again: School shootings as experienced by school leaders. Scarecrow Press.

  17. Fein, A. H., Carlisle, C. S., & Isaacson, N. S. (2008). School Shootings and Counselor Leadership: Four Lessons from the Field. Sage Research Journals. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0801100405

  18. Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009, January 15). Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents. Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/community-violence-a-metaanalysis-on-the-effect-of-exposure-and-mental-health-outcomes-of-children-and-adolescents/A460C5BCCC50A19B4D53D772C76261DE

  19. Green, J. G., McLaughlin, K. A., Alegría, M., Costello, E. J., Gruber, M. J., Hoagwood, K., Leaf, P. J., Olin, S., Sampson, N. A., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). School Mental Health Resources and Adolescent Mental Health Service Use. Elsevier.

  20. Gubi, A. A., Strait, J., Wycoff, K., Vega, V., Brauser, B., & Osman, Y. (2019). Trauma-Informed Knowledge and Practices in School Psychology: A Pilot Study and Review. Taylor & Francis Online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15377903.2018.1549174

  21. Huo, Y., Couzner, L., Windsor, T., Laver, K., Dissanayaka, N. N., & Cations, M. (2023, May 5). Barriers and enablers for the implementation of trauma-informed care in healthcare settings: A systematic review - implementation science communications. BioMed Central. https://implementationsciencecomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s43058-023-00428-0

  22. Jonson, C. L. (2017, October 27). Preventing School Shootings: The Effectiveness of Safety Measures. Victims & Offenders. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15564886.2017.1307293

  23. Jovanovic, T., Vance, L. A., Cross, D., Knight, A. K., Kilaru, V., Michopoulos, V., Klengel, T., & Smith, A. K. (2017, August 21). Exposure to violence accelerates epigenetic aging in children. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-09235-9

  24. Levine, P. B., & McKnight, R. (2021, January 4). Exposure to a school shooting and subsequent well-being. National Bureau of Economic Research . https://www.nber.org/papers/w28307

  25. Lowe, S. R., & Galea, S. (2015). The Mental Health Consequences of Mass Shootings. Sage Research Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1524838015591572

  26. Marraccini, M., & Brier, Z. M. F. (2017). School connectedness and suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A systematic meta-analysis. American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fspq0000192

  27. Menker, C. G., Bendelow, A., Sheehan, K., Helmcamp, L., Casale, M., Smith, T. L., Davis, M. M., & Heffernan, M. E. (2025, September 15). Parent and youth worry about school shootings and connections with youth well-being and stress: A cross-sectional survey study: Published in Journal of Health Advocacy. Journal of Health Advocacy.

  28. Newman, E., Pfefferbaum, B., Kirlic, N., Tett, R., Nelson, S., & Liles, B. (2014, August 3). Meta-analytic review of psychological interventions for children survivors of natural and man-made disasters - current psychiatry reports. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-014-0462-z

  29. Peterson, J. K., Densley, J. A., & Pyrooz, D. (2025, April 23). Mental health consequences of exposure to mass and non-mass shootings in a national sample of US adults. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/s44220-025-00413-7

  30. Peterson, S. (2018, June 18). School shooting resources. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/terrorism-and-violence/school-shooting-resources

  31. Pfefferbaum, B., Nitiéma, P., & Newman, E. (2021, February 11). A critical review of effective child mass trauma interventions: What we know and do not know from the evidence. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/11/2/25

  32. PREPaRe. National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). (n.d.). https://www.nasponline.org/professional-development/prepare-training-curriculum/about-prepare

  33. Psychological first aid (PFA) Field Operations Guide: 2nd edition. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2024, March 19). https://www.nctsn.org/resources/psychological-first-aid-pfa-field-operations-guide-2nd-edition

  34. Rajan, S., Buttar, N., Ladhani, Z., Caruso, J., Allegrante, J. P., & Branas, C. (2024, August 28). School violence exposure as an adverse childhood experience: Protocol for a nationwide study of Secondary Public Schools. JMIR research protocols. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11391155/

  35. Rapa, L. J., Katsiyannis, A., Scott, S. N., & Durham, O. (2024, March 4). School Shootings in the United States: 1997–2022. American Academy of Pediatrics. https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/153/4/e2023064311/196816/School-Shootings-in-the-United-States-1997-2022

  36. Rencken, C. A., Banks, S., Ellyson, A. M., Davis, C. A., Rhew, I. C., & Rowhani-Rahbar, A. (2025, July 17). School shootings and Mental Health Outcomes: A scoping review. BMJ Journals. https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/early/2025/07/17/ip-2025-045653

  37. Robinson, L. E., Watson, K. R., Fensterstock, N., Hogenkamp, S., Xu, Y., Garner, H., Warri, V. R., Morgan, C. H., Garcia, A. A., Wu, C., Dunn, D., Espelage, D. L., Astor, R. A., McMahon, S. D., Reddy, L. A., Anderman, E. M., Worrell, F. C., & Martinez, A. (2025, February 18). School Safety Concerns and solutions: A qualitative analysis of U.S. School Psychologists’ perspectives. MDPI. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/15/2/228

  38. Rossin-Slater, M., Schnell, M., Schwandt, H., Trejo, S., & Uniat, L. (2019, December 16). Local exposure to school shootings and youth antidepressant use. National Bureau of Economic Research . https://www.nber.org/papers/w26563

  39. Russo, N. (2025, November). School Shooting Recovery . personal.

  40. Scheeringa, M. S., Myers, L., Putnam, F. W., & Zeanah, C. H. (2012). Diagnosing PTSD in early childhood: An empirical assessment of four approaches. Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jts.21723

  41. School shooting resources. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (n.d.). https://www.samhsa.gov/resource/dbhis/school-shooting-resources

  42. Schwarz, E., & Kowalski, J. (n.d.). Malignant Memories: PTSD in children and adults after a school shooting. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1757443/

  43. Shultz, J. M., Cohen, A. M., Muschert, G. W., & Flores de Apodaca, R. (2013, April 1). Fatal School shootings and the epidemiological context of firearm mortality in the United States. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5314897/

  44. Small, M. L., Barrios, L. C., Anderson, M., Simon, T. R., & Brener, N. D. (2002, April). Effect of the incident at Columbine on students’ violence- and suicide-related behaviors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(01)00433-0/abstract

  45. Teasley, M. L. (2018, July). School shootings and the need for more school-based mental health services | children & schools | oxford academic. Children and Schools. https://academic.oup.com/cs/article/40/3/131/5035074

  46. Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2009). Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence. Psychological Inquiry. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01

  47. Travers, Á., McDonagh, T., & Elklit, A. (2018, May 19). Youth responses to school shootings: A review - current psychiatry reports. Springer Link. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-018-0903-1

  48. Turunen, T., Haravuori, H., Pihlajamaki, J. J., Marttunen, M., & Punamaki, R.-L. (2014). Framework of the outreach after a school shooting and the students perceptions of the provided support. European Journal of Psychotraumatology.

  49. Wethington, H. R., Chattopadhyay, S. K., Kalra, G., Tuma, F. K., Price, L. N., Mościcki, E., Liberman, A. M., Johnson, R. L., Crosby, A. E., Sipe, T. A., Fuqua-Whitley, D. S., & Hahn, R. A. (2008). The effectiveness of interventions to reduce psychological harm from traumatic events among children and adolescents: A systematic review. American journal of preventive medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18692745/

Contact Us

For any questions, or to schedule a workshop, reach out here:

Screenshot 2026-01-26 at 10.00_edited.jpg

Noah Bridges, ALM, BA.

​

​

bottom of page